Thematic hub of the IHP

Cultural and religious values

Hub on cultural values, historical monuments and religious buildings and conditions for their special protection.

Type: specially protected objects - thematic hub Conflict: IAC / NIAC - depending on the specific form and legal basis The legal framework has been checked: 20.08.2026
Construction type
specially protected objects - thematic hub
IAC / NIAC
IAC / NIAC - depending on the specific form and legal basis
Protected object
cultural values; historical monuments; religious buildings
Rome Statute
Article 8(2)(b)(ix); Article 8(2)(e)(iv)
Contractual IHL
Geneva Conventions of 1949 and/or Additional Protocols — depending on the type of conflict and the facts.
Conventional IHL
The relevant customary norm of IHL is checked in the ICRC database together with practice and opinio juris.
Route according to Article 438
The blanket part of Article 438 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine; the specific prohibition of IHL, the seriousness of the violation and the wording of the law must be established for the episode.

Disclaimer: national qualification requires specifying the applicable norm of IHL, the seriousness of the violation, the nexus with the armed conflict, the form of guilt and the wording of the law at the time of the act. The material is not individual legal advice.

What to check

  1. Classify armed conflict and determine the temporal and territorial limits of applicable IHL.
  2. Name a specific contractual or customary norm, the violation of which is blamed.
  3. Establish the protected status of a person or object at the time of the act.
  4. Prove a specific action, consequence and causal relationship without replacing the element with a general description of the context.
  5. Prove the connection of the act with the armed conflict (nexus).
  6. Establish the required form of guilt and knowledge of the actual circumstances.
  7. Individualize the contribution of a specific person and do not derive responsibility only from the position or belonging to the unit.
  8. Check the form of complicity or command responsibility separately from the composition itself.
  9. Apply the version of the criminal law in force at the time of the act, taking into account the prohibition of aggravating retroactive action.

Evidence matrix

QuestionWhat to checkTypical weakness
The context of the conflictDocuments parties, intensity, organization, territory control, and date of episode.A general description of the war without reference to a specific time, place or side.
Protected statusThe function, behavior and use of a person or object at the moment of the event.Status is derived only from name, profession, form, or the effect of a blow.
Actus reusPrimary materials, testimonies, examinations, digital traces and their cross-checking.The conclusion is based on a transfer, an incomplete file, or an unreproducible method.
Mens reaInformation available to the person ex ante, orders, communications, behavior before and after the event.The intention is automatically deduced from the actual consequence or position.
Identification and contributionReliable attribution of person, unit, facility, order, and specific action.Group membership has been replaced by proof of personal participation.
Origin of proofOriginal, metadata, receipt log, chain of custody, analysis tool and version.Missing original, transmission gaps, or the original data is not open to the party.

Defence Perspective

Questions to check the prosecution's version

  • What is the norm of International Criminal Law and what form of action is named in the suspicion and the indictment?
  • Has the applicability of this norm been proven to the type of conflict, time, territory and parties?
  • On the basis of what facts was established the protected status of a person or an object at the time of the event?
  • What primary sources support each material element, and are they open to defense?
  • Is the actual effect separated from the intent or knowledge to be proved?
  • What information was available to the accused person before the event, and did not become known only ex post?
  • What confirms the identification of the person and his specific contribution, besides the position or belonging to the group?
  • Are the originals, metadata, transmission log, and ability to independently repeat expert or OSINT analysis preserved?
  • What alternative explanations of the facts were checked by the investigation and why were they rejected?
  • Did the actual boundaries of the prosecution change during the trial without a real opportunity to prepare a defense?

Ukrainian case brief

Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faki Al Mahdi

Right
ICC-01/12-01/15
Actual context
Deliberate attacks on historic and religious buildings in Timbuktu, Mali, in 2012 in a non-international armed conflict.
Legal position
In 2016, the Trial Chamber convicted Al Mahdi of deliberately targeting ten protected buildings after pleading guilty.
Defense position / controversial issues
Due to the admission of guilt, the case has a special procedural framework; not all issues arising in adversarial evidence were fully contested.
The result of the appeal
The guilty verdict was not appealed; a separate appeal dealt with reparations, and in 2021 the sentence was reduced following a review.
Value for article 438
Guideline on the status of cultural and religious sites, the intentional direction of the attack, the actual contribution and reparations.

It is necessary to separately check whether the object was used for military purposes, and not to transfer conclusions from the case with an admission of guilt without analyzing the evidence.

Open the official page of the case

Controlled thematic connections

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Related materials

judicial practice judicial practice neutral primary source court decision

ICC: Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi

Official ICC case file on the deliberate targeting of historical and religious sites in Timbuktu, with rulings, verdicts and reparations…

2016–2021 · English / French · Official external source

Abstract and source